Lecture 13, Contrasting examples of Tyranny: Sparta and Athens
I. Tyrant, a non hereditary ruler who acquired power by unconstitutional means, usually with widespread public
support.
1. Tyrants did not produce substantial constitutional changes. They tended to perch on top of existing constitutional
systems without altering them.
2. Tyrants were men of great energy, who ease the economic and social problems of their times.
3. Tyrants were great builders; they engaged in public works projects to provide jobs for displaced subsistence
farmers.
4. Tyrants broadened their aristocracies to include wealthy outsiders (helping wealthy metic traders and artisans
to obtain citizenship, hold office, and enter the council for life)
5. Tyrants weakened aristocratic hold on society; they broadened the base of the aristocracy to include wealthy
outsiders and provided economic stability for small farmer-citizen-soldiers who had formerly been dependent on
aristocratic patrons for survival.
6. Tyrants represent the breakthrough of the individual in politics. In Greece voters tended to identify with strong
personalities rather than with political "parties' in the modern sense.
Tyranny represented a transitional experience in the Greek world, nearly every polis was affected by it to some
degree. Tyrannies are on record at Corinth, Sicyon, Megara, Athens, Mytilene, Miletus, Ephesus, Samos, and Naxos,
for example. Tyrants essentially "jump-started" their societies; they created the means to convert their
communities from dispersed subsistence agricultural communities to outward looking
commercially active cities.
They had no political legitimacy, however. They stayed in power so long as they succeeded at delivering for their
popular support. Once their supporters turned against them, tyrannies usually collapsed. No tyranny survived beyond
3 generations.
Best two examples to show the effects of tyranny are Sparta and Athens -- Sparta because it resisted the threat
of tyranny to become an extended oligarchy; Athens because it experienced the full cycle of tyranny to emerge as
the most commercially active, most democratic society in Greece.
I. THE SPARTAN HOPLITE SYSTEM
At its peak Sparta existed as a cluster of 4 villages along the Eurotas River in the plain of Laconia or
Lacedaemonia,
protected on both sides by towering mountains, particularly the Taygetos Range that separated Laconia from the
neighboring plain of Messenia.
Early evidence suggests that there is no indication that Sparta was heading in a unique direction -- early constitution
2 Kings Agiad line claimed descent from Bronze Age Kings, the Eurypontids were elevated by the aristocracy during
the Dark Age; each could veto the acts of the other -- hence collegiality)
Gerousia (council of elders)
Apella (assembly of warriors)
evidence of painted pottery production and colonization - Tarentum in Italy.
This and expanding conflict indicates that Spartans pursued deliberate policy of fighting neighbors to obtain more
land. Spartan warrior elite, the Spartiatai, successfully "conquered" neighboring peoples of the Eurotas
River and subordinated them to the status of "perioikoi", the dwellers around the "oikoi."
These people preserved their autonomy but became politically subordinate to the Spartans -- they furnished troops
and logistical services to the Spartan hoplite army. They also manufactured arms. Elements captured in war were
reduced to field laborers, Helots, who farmed Spartan lands for the warriors. Helots were basically serfs.
By 750 BC Sparta was the master of all Laconia. In the early 8th century Sparta began a sustained conquest of neighboring
Messenia -- a Greek population like itself with traditions extending back to the Bronze Age (Sparta claimed descent
from Menelaus, brother of Agamemnon; Messenia from King Nestor of Pylos). Conquest of Messenia did not come without
costs. Two violent drawn-out Messenian Wars, one c. 750-700 BC, another two generations later.
Sparta also extended its military supremacy northward into the Peloponnesian highlands. Eventually it came into
conflict with the emerging tyranny of Pheidon of Argos, who is credited with forming the first hoplite Phalanx.
At the battle of Hysiai in 669 BC Argos delivered a stinging defeat to the Spartan army and sent it into a
tailspin.
Messenia and neighboring communities rebelled; Sparta potentially faced with collapse from within and without and
compelled to adapt to changing circumstances. Spartans elected to adapt to a military caste system in which the
entire society existed to support its "defense establishment" of highly trained hoplite warriors.
CHANGES TO CONSTITUTION AND TO SOCIETY IN SPARTA:
Traditionally identified with legendary lawgiver Lycurgus. Modern consensus that the changes occurred at this time
to create a national army. Lycurgus allegedly obtained religious sanction for new constitution from Delphi, brought
Sparta his rhetra, or recorded laws that provided eunomia (legal justice) to the community.
New constitution -
2 Kings - commanders in chief in war, chief priests of the state
5 ephors -- annually elected magistrates. Chief administrative officials entrusted with maintaining the Spartan
warrior establishment.
Supposedly a democratic innovation, elected by the warriors, but largely under the control of the Gerousia and
served as a check and balance to the kings. Monthly exaction of the oath of loyalty from the kings. Watched the
heavens every 9th year for signs of divine displeasure with the kings, 2 ephors always traveled with kings on military
campaigns. Received foreign embassies and introduced them to the assembly, convened meetings of Gerousia and Apella,
introduced legislation, controlled lesser magistrates, formed a court with the Gerousia, and responsible for general
supervision of education of the young.
Gerousia (28 members selected by Apella from pool of 60 year old war veterans). Evidence of an aristocratic wealthy
elite that bribed the ephors to do its bidding vs.. The kings and the Apella. Sparta remained staunchly reactionary
society. Probouleutic function (packaged legislation to be presented to the Apella)
Apella (assembly of full-blooded, able bodied Spartan warriors sustained by the state -- the homoioi, or equals).
Voted up or down on wars, alliances, treaties, election of ephors, and other legislation put before it by the ephors.
Likely change was to incorporate all free-born able-bodied, full-blooded Spartan warriors into assembly by furnishing
all participants with economic means of subsistence.
Spartan govt. Was similar to those of other Greek city states. What was unique was the Spartan way of life.
According to tradition Lycurgus redistributed the land to level rich and poor, creating uniformity and equality
among the warrior elite -- the homoioi or equals. More likely the division of land was a long-term process beginning
in the 8th century on the Eurotas River, but especially in the Pasimus valley in Messenia after the rebellion of
the second Messenian war. Suppression of rebel Messenians in their mountain fastness of Mt. Ithome probably required
many years and the placement of a garrison force in Messenia itself. Most likely solution was for the Spartan aristocracy
to agree to allow ephors to redistribute conquered Messenian lands piece-meal to lower class Spartan warriors to
furnish them with means to sustain their careers as warriors. In essence, Sparta evolved into a totalitarian society
in which "all land" and all souls were committed to the maintenance of the Spartan hoplite aristocracy.
The purpose of the educational system was to produce the perfect specimens of warriors. Ephors' responsibility
was to maintain the Spartan warrior caste system.
1. Kleros - land allotment, all land was controlled by the state and awarded to Spartan hoplite warriors upon adulthood
(20 years old) by the ephors. Each allotment came with helot family (families) who did the actual farming to sustain
the family of the Spartan warrior and themselves. Spartan warriors were exempt from all subsistence labor in order
to devote their entire careers to warfare.
Land could not be bought or sold; Sparta prohibited money in fact -- used iron spits for currency. The logic being
that Sparta would trade gold and silver for iron to make more weapons with which to conquer neighboring peoples
and to reclaim their gold and silver.
2. phiditia -- mess hall and barracks of 20-30 hoplites = ila, wing or company of the phalanx. "Cadets"
from ages 7-20 lived at the phiditia and served the adult hoplite warriors; all adult warriors had to eat their
main daily meal at the phiditia. Provisions had to be provided by individual soldiers from their land allotment.
If for some reason they lost control of their land allotments they became inferiors (hypomeiones) and could no
longer dine at the phiditia. Phiditia key to building camaraderie among Spartan warrior elite; state supervision
made it the basis of the national militia.
Process is better seen through its educational system. As children women received same athletic training as men.
Spartan women probably received greater exposure to literacy and mathematics since, once married, they would assume
primary responsibility for running Spartan agricultural estates. Athenian sources describe Spartan women as being
robustly beautiful but not very bright.
At birth male offspring of arranged marriage between full-blooded Spartan males and females would be examined by
ephors for physical defects that might prevent its development into a warrior. If defects were visible the infant
was exposed (infanticide). At age 7 the youth entered the Spartan cadet corps where he would spend his next 13
years learning how to become a Spartan warrior. Sort of a Spartan "outward bound" program -- sent into
the wastelands to learn to live off the land for months at a time, drinking from rainwater pockets, stealing food
from the fields in the valleys below. Learn the limits of human endurance by going without food, water, or shelter.
If caught stealing food by the krypteia, cadets were beaten (Krypteia, secret police of senior cadets selected
by the ephors to train the young and to spy on the helots to prevent rebellions. Krypteia would disguise themselves
as helots and work in the fields. If they learned of any dynamic helots with rebellious tendencies those helots
would suddenly disappear at night, never to be seen again).
Purpose of educational process was to produce ideal warriors in service to the state. Soldiers were taught to come
back from battle with their shields on their shoulders or come back dead upon them. After the Battle of Leuctra
in 371 BC, Sparta's first military defeat in battle, the women of the surviving soldiers mourned the return of
their brethren because they had disgraced their families, while the women related to the dead being carried on
their shields were deliriously happy because their brethren had maintained the honor of their families. A sort
of mass psychosis had seized Spartan society following their threatened eclipse after the Battle of Hysiai.
At age 20 Spartan warrior was given a bride selected by the ephors. Practice of eugenics -- arranged marriages
designed to produce the perfect specimens of warriors. Warriors also given a kleros and helots at this time, but
still had to live and work at the phiditia. Age 20-30, shock forces of the ilae, highest state of readiness for
emergencies. At age 30 warrior was allowed to live at the kleros with his family and to vote in the Apella, but
still had to eat his main meal at the phiditia. Close camaraderie among troops, including encouraged homosexual
relationships, insured emotional bond necessary to preserve one another on the battlefield. Spartan soldiers remained
eligible for service until they were 60, at which point they could retire and/or be elected into the Gerousia by
the apella (basically war heroes were elected).
End result of this social system was the development of a truly professional army, the greatest hoplite phalanx
the Greek world ever knew. Tremendous training, skill and stamina. Able to endure long hours on the battlefield
in the heat of day clad in 50-80 lbs of armor. The Spartan phalanx generally rolled up any and all forces arrayed
against them in the field. Some 6000 hoplites and 300-400 aristocratic cavalry. The entire system was sustained
by the helot field economy, hence, threat of helot revolts a constant menace. Periokoi enjoyed more privileged
position -- served with Spartans, supported them logistically, allowed to engage in artisan activities and trade,
but recognized as social inferiors. Helots were tied to the land, but controlled by the state rather than by individuals,
and could be reassigned to new warrior families by the ephors (theoretically -- reality tended toward inherited
estates among powerful families over time). Essentially the Kleros system meant that all land of Laconia and Messinia
became public land. Reality however was that not all Spartans were equal. An inner clique of aristocrats in the
Gerousia never diminished its landholdings. They remained a conservative influence on society. But by redistributing
much of the land, particularly conquered lands of Messenia Sparta succeeded at avoiding tyranny by expanding the
aristocracy to include poorer full-blooded free-born able-bodied Spartans. A privileged class of Spartan citizens
who were provided with all the necessities of life by inferior castes of periokoi and helots. The Spartans thus
freed of having to engage in subsistence labor could devote their entire lives to service to the state. With Messenia
and Laconia, Spartan hoplite aristocracy controlled approximately 40% of the arable land of the Peloponnesus and
hence remained agriculturally self-sufficient -- no need for trade or colonization. Spartan empire probably sustained
some 150,000 people, although fewer than 6000 males represented the elite.
C. 560 BC Spartans began to exert their influence outside their home region, defeating perennial rival, Tegea.
Renewed conquest engendered new policy of hegemonic alliance system known as the
Peloponnesian League or "the Lacedaimonians and their allies." Defeated states received back their autonomy and were not required to pay
tribute. They had to have the same friends and enemies as Sparta and maintain their national militias to be summoned
by Sparta to serve during emergencies. Subject states essentially lost their freedom to engage in foreign affairs.
A permanent defensive alliance under Spartan leadership. Sparta alone could convene the league, but each member
state had one vote. Only majority vote could determine war and peace, under the presidency of the Spartan king.
Spartans could refuse to convene a league meeting if they disagreed with the agenda. By 500 BC nearly every state
in the Peloponnesus joined the league, including Corinth.
Helot problem made Spartan outlook very conservative. Wary of involvement in affairs outside the peninsula and
could not risk maintaining forces in distant theaters for long.
Spartan army evolved into an "officer staff" to supervise league formation. Spartan phalanx usually placed
on the exposed right side of the line, but Spartan officers distributed throughout the allied ranks to maintain
cohesion. Pelop. League forces could put c. 60,000 men into the field during the Persian wars. At the Battle of
Plataea, 479 BC, allegedly 80,000 Greek hoplites opposed the Persian invaders, probably 60,000 of which were Pelop.
League forces.
CONCLUSION - Spartan aristocracy, when faced with threat of tyranny, evaded tyranny by agreeing to redistribute
"public land" to create broadened hoplite aristocracy. It then closed ranks to emerge as one of the most
conservative societies in Greece. Tended to favor oligarchies like itself and to oppose tyranny throughout the
Greek world.