Early Fourth Century Politics in Greece

Battle of Aegospotami, 404 BC

401 BC, Athenians sue for terms.

30 tyrants, led by Critias, student of Socrates

Dizzying pace of alliances:

Peloponnesian War

Athens vs. Sparta, Corinth, Argos, Thebes

Spartan Hegemony, 401-372 BC

Sparta vs. Corinth, Argos, Thebes, and Athens

[C.D. Hamilton, Sparta's Bitter Harvest]

Theban Hegemony, 371-362 BC

Thebes vs. Sparta, Corinth, Athens, Argos

[T. Buckler, The Theban Hegemony]

Second Athenian Naval Confederacy, 378-357 BC

1. Greek warfare continued following Peloponnesian War.

As destructive as the Peloponnesian War proved the level of violence in Greece continued to rise in the following era. Conflict remained incessant during the fourth century as city states continued to realign themselves into shifting alliances in order to combat the threatening military ascendancy of first Sparta (404-371), then Thebes (371-362), and then Athens (362-357). The bewildering rotation of alliances appears to reflect the innate tendency of Greek city-states to restore particularism, city-state autonomy, by weakening whatever power appeared to be on the verge of asserting political ascendancy over others. The result was to leave the Greek mainland divided and resentful of one another at the very moment that outside powers were again threatening to exert their influence over Greece as a whole.

King Agesilaus of Sparta – manpower shortages

Xenophon, the March of the 10000, and Cyrus II – 401-399 BC. Cyrus II, brother to Persian King Artaxerxes II, and favorite son of the dowager queen was assigned to the Persian command of the Aegean as military satrap to resolve Persia’s role in the Peloponnesian War. He forged an alliance with the Spartan “admiral” Lysander that successfully brought Athens to surrender. His ulterior motive was to recruit Greek mercenary support for his bid to overthrow his brother as king. Some 10,000 Greek mercenaries, many of them exiles, joined his expedition, including Xenophon, an Athenian aristocrat and student of Socrates. At the Battle of Cunaxa outside Babylon, Cyrus and his combined Persian-Greek force defeated the arm of his brother on the battlefield. He himself was killed, leaving the Greek contingent stranded, deep in Persian territory. Over a 1-year period this Greek army marched and fought its way out of “Persia” by heading north to the Black Sea. Most of the warriors successfully made their way back to Greek territory, Byzantium, by which time Artaxerxes and the Spartans were now at war, led by King Agesilaus. Xenophon reports that many of the survivors reenlisted for this new conflict. This expedition demonstrated the inferior state of readiness of the Persian military establishment, vis-à-vis Greek hoplite warfare, and inspired many military and political thinkers in Greece to conceive of the day when Greek armies would conquer Persia.

Messenia – helots – serfs, Messenian (Greek) farmers tied to the land to support the families of Spartan full-blooded hoplite warriors and their families. The presence of this suppressed population limited the range of Spartan military ventures. The Gerousia never wanted the army too far from the Peloponnesus in the event of a helot uprising.

Peace of Antalcidas 387 – Brought the temporary end to hostilities following the Corinthian War (Sparta vs. Greece). The Peace was imposed by the Persian King Artaxerxes II and “enforced” by King Agesilaus of Sparta. It lasted briefly.

Boetian League of Thebes – Thebes became hegemon to a military empire based on its native region of Boetia.

Seizure of the Cadmeia 382 – Spartan army seized the acropolis of Thebes and imposed a garrison, expelled by 378. This insult led to the emergence of generals Epaminondas and Pelopidas in Thebes.

2^nd Athenian Naval Confederacy 378 – 357 (Social War) – Athenians attempted to reconstitute the Delian League alliance of the 5^th century BC, without resort to tribute. Without guaranteed funds the alliance was doomed. When Athens attempted to impose force contributions, the allies rebelled (Social War, 357 BC) and the alliance dissolved.

Battle of Leuctra 371 – Messenia liberated. Generals Epaminondas and Pelopidas outmaneuvered the Spartans on the battlefield and decimated the Spartan hoplite army. Sparta was suddenly exposed to repeated invasions of Laconia by Thebes, supported by many former Peloponnesian League allies. Epaminondas liberated states such as Messenia and Mantinea from Spartan domination and helped to construct defenses.

Philip II taken Hostage ca. 370, Pelopidas exerted Theban hegemony to the north, to Thessaly and Macedonia, taking young prince Philip hostage toward good behavior by his older brother Perdiccas, the king. As a teenager Philip observed and participated in Theban military operations and learned the advantages of “joint force operations” and the “oblique phalanx”.

Battle of Mantinea 362 – Though victorious on the field against Sparta, Athens, and Argos, Epaminondas died on the field, following Pelopidas’ demise in northern Greece. For all their success and brilliance, Epaminondas and Pelopidas had no successors able to maintain Theban military supremacy. Thebes reigned in its influence and interests to the immediate vicinity of Boetia.

Early Macedonia:

Basileus – a baron of Macedonia; the Macedonian King was “king among kings”.

Hetairoi – companion cavalry; all Macedonian nobles rode horses in battle, approximately 1800 by 336 BC.