WHO KILLED PHILIP II? A FACT SHEET

FACT: When Philip II became regent of Macedonia in 359, he had to contend with two royal cousins, Paeus and Argaeus, three half brothers Archelaus, Arrhidaeus, and Menelaus. He survived only by eliminating all three.

THE OFFICIAL FINDINGS OF ALEXANDER III’S INVESTIGATION FOLLOWING THE ASSASSINATION: Pausanias acted in conjuction with Heromenes and Arrhabaeus of Aeropus (the Lyncestrians), and Attalus--all three were executed. Demosthenes and Darius III were possibly involved as well. Amyntas, son of Perdiccas was separately convicted and executed.

Pausanias--an Oresteian like Perdiccas and Leonnatus. He enjoyed some sort of bond with Alexander the Lyncestrian as well (Q.C. 7.1.5). Justin vs. Diodorus re: Philip II’s reaction to his sexual violation at the hands of Attalus. The date of this event is disputed: either 8 years earlier or according to Diodorus (16.93-5), immediately following Philip’s marriage to Cleopatra in 337; cf. Aristotle Pol. 1211 B2. The multiple horses...alleged encouragement by Olympias, Alexander, and Hermocrates, the tutor to the pages (Diod. Sic. 16.94). DS 16.94.4: Pausanias killed by Alexander’s close friends, Philip’s bodyguards, Leonnatus and Perdiccas.

Olympias. Lived separately for years from her husband Philip II. She left Macedonia for her homeland Epirus at the time of Philip II’s marriage to Cleopatra, “neice” of Attalus (Justin 9.5.9; 11.11.3-4--reports formal divorce at that time). She urged her brother Alexander of Epirus to declare war on Philip. Alexander enjoyed his throne since 342 after Philip deposed his uncle Arybbas and placed Alexander in his stead (he would later die campaigning in Italy in 334). Alexander agreed with Philip to marry Olympias and Philip’s daugher Cleopatra at time of the assassination (DS 16.72.1; Just. 8.6.4-8). Olympias was in exile at Epirus at the time, but supposedly encouraged Pausanias and assisted him (Plut. Alex. 9; Just. 9.7.5-20). Returned to Macedonia immediately after the assassination to murder Cleopatra and Europe, bury Philip, and perform hero cult rituals for Pausanias. She was reprimanded by Alexander for her excesses.

Alexander--misunderstanding with Philip II led to Pixodarus affair and the exile of his friends. In the following year, he and Philip had drinking quarrel at the time of Philip’s marriage with Cleopatra, the “neice” of Attalus in 337. He fled to Epirus and to Illyria, but eventually was persuaded by Philip to return to the palace to resume his place as commander of the companion cavalry (Plut. 9; Just. 9.7.5). On day of assassination Philip wanted him to walk beside him into theater at Aegae, a position of honor: Just. 9.6.3.

Alexander’s bodyguards--Harpalus, Ptolemy, Nearchus, Erygieus and Laomedon (the last three non-Macedonians) were exiled by Philip II for their apparently overt show of loyalty to Alexander at the time of the Pixodarus affair (not in Macedonia at time of assassination: Plut. 10; Arr. 3.6.5). Plut. Alex. 10: “Alexander's mother and his friends sent him a distorted account of this maneuver, making out that Philip was planning to settle the kingdom on Arrhidaeus by arranging a brilliant marriage and treating him as a person of great consequence.”

Philip’s bodyguards--Leonnatus, Perdiccas, and Attalus (2) were present at the assassination and slew Pausanias as he fled. Alexander demoted them to the ranks after the assassination (Arr. p. 156). Perdiccas and Leonnatus belonged to a collateral line of the royal family. Perdiccas, Leonnatus and Pausanias were all Oresteians. Perdiccas was also Attalus’ brother-in-law. Attalus (2) remained under suspicion by Alexander and was later killed and his family executed according to the law of treason. A plausible argument could be made that the bodyguards were somehow involved in the conspiracy, and either a. backed off when Philip made his unexpected move at the theater, or b. “egged” Pausanias on with promises of support and then killed him to silence him.

Attalus (1)--Macedonian noble of the highest rank. Philip’s latest wife, Cleopatra “Eurydice” was his “niece”. The ugly wedding scene in 338 (Plut. 9.7; Just. 9.7.5; Athenaeus--from Satyros, a 3rd Cent. BC source) Parmenio was his father-in-law. Rumor had it that she was pregnant with a male child at the time of the assassination, her first child having been female. Perdiccas was his brother-in-law. Correspondence with Demosthenes. Commanding the “advanced column” of Philip’s army in Asia at the time of the assassination. Very popular with the troops. (DS 17.5; Arrian 1.25). Executed by Alexander following the assassination, allegedly for conspiring with the Athenians (DS 17.5.1-2). Just. 11.2.3 indicates that Alexander also killed Attalus’ brother Caranus. His niece, Cleopatra and her daughter were murdered by Olympias.

Amyntas 1 (son of late King Perdiccas III; Philip II’s older brother) and his close friend Amyntas 2 (a noble, son of Antiochus). Philip II married Amyntas 1 to his own daughter Kynanne, perhaps near the time of the assassination. Plutarch, Moralia 327C, “Macedonia was festering and looked to Amyntas and the sons of Aeropus (the Lyncestrian brothers).” Amyntas 1 was executed by Alexander after the assassination. Amyntas 2 fled to Persia together with another noble, Aristomedes of Pherae, and was later discovered at Alexander’s camp bearing treasonous correspondence between Alexander the Lyncestrian and Darius III of Persia (Plut. 20, Arr. 1.24.3, 2.6.3, 2.13.2; QC 3.8.2, 3.9.3).

Alexander the Lyncestrian and his brothers (Heromenes and Arrabaeus). Their father Aeropus, a member of a collateral royal line, had been exiled by Philip II after the battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC (Polyaen. 4.2.3). Aeropus had served as a commander during the battle but Philip then exiled him, along with another officer called Damasippus, for “disciplinary reasons.” This has direct bearing on the observation by Plutarch (Moralia 327 C) that at the time of Philip’s assassination, “All of Macedonia was festering with revolt and looked toward Amyntas and the children of Aeropus [for relief]”. Alexander was also the son-in-law of Antipater. The three brothers were accused of complicity with Pausanias and Darius III to kill Philip (QC 4.1.12; 7.1.5-7; Arr. 2.14). Heromenes and Arrabaeus were executed (Arr. 1.25.1), but Alexander the Lyncestrian quickly performed homage to Alexander, and was described by Arrian as the latter’s friend (Arr. 1.25). He went on to hold positions of responsibility in the army. Later suspected of conspiring with Darius III and executed (Arr. 1.25 and other sources).

Darius III of Persia. Had just risen to power. Rumors that he paid assassins to murder Philip II and bribed Greek states to rebel against the Leage of Corinth--and that he even boasted of it. Documents proving that he bribed Demosthenes of Athens were supposedly uncovered by Alexander at the satrap’s headquarters at Sardis (Plut. Demos. p. 205-6, 210, 255; QC 4.1.12; Arr. 2.14.5).

Demosthenes of Athens. Inveterate foe of Philip. Documents recovered by Alexander at Sardis indicated that Demosthenes accepted bribes from Darius III to plot against Philip II. Correspondence with Attalus as well. Dedicated shrine to Pausanias (Philip’s assassin) after the assassination (Arrian p. 64).

Parmenio and Antipater. Philip II’s closest advisers. Parmenio was Philip II’s most reliable general and foremost friend (QC 7.1.3). Antipater was Philip’s close friend from youth (Plut. Mor. 1789B; Athen. 10.435d; Just. 9.4.5). Philip’s intention possibly was to leave Antipater as Alexander’s advisor during the latter’s regency of Macedonia in Philip’s absence. Parmenio was Attalus’ father-in-law (QC 6.9.18). However, ancient sources indicate that he was devoted to Alexander and there is no evidence that he opposed his accession to the throne (DS 17.5.2; QC 7.1.1-5). Antipater was Alexander the Lyncestrian’s father-in-law (Quint. Curt. 7.1.7). After the assassination Antipater hastily arranged Alexander’s accession and acceptance of Alexander the Lyncestrian’s loyalty, even as he executed his brothers (Arr. 1.25). Parmenio and Antipater allegedly urged Alexander to “go slow.”