CAESAR IN GAUL IN THE 50S BC

Rome controlled Cisalpine Gaul and Gallia Narbonensis, but vast free areas included Aquitania, Celtica, and Belgica. A leadership system of Druid priests and warlords.

THE GALLIC CAMPAIGNS 59-52 BC

The request of aid by the allied Aedui (map); neighboring Gallic tribes had allied with Germans and defeated them. Romans did nothing; Roman prestige in Gaul declined. However, the Germans, having been invited across the Rhine, immediately began a conflict of conquest with their Gallic “allies.” Their king Ariovistus settled large numbers on the Gallic banks of the Rhine. Meanwhile, the Helvetii, Gauls of Switzerland, pressed by Germanic raids and population rise, determined to migrate through Gaul to new lands further west.

Caesar went to Gaul in 58 BC with 4 legions; returned in 49 with 11 legions. His auxiliaries were primarily Gallic but included elements such as Germanic cavalry.

Migration of the Helvetii, perhaps 370,000 people. Caesar blocked their movement at Genava (Geneva) by destroying bridge. Helvetii then bypassed Caesar by passing through land of the Sequani to the north and began ravaging land of the Aedui. Caesar used rapid night marches to approach them and defeated them. Gallic promises of supplies proved unreliable and Caesar was forced to exert authority over various tribal kings. Massive defeat of the Helvetii, survivors were forced to return to their native land (110,000). Gauls now came to him asking for support against Ariovistus with his 120,000 Germans settled in Gaul. Behind him was a migrating horde of Suebi ready to cross the Rhine. Caesar approached Ariovistus’ position near (Strasbourg). Caesar routed Ariovistus and drove him back across the Rhine. Winter quarters in the Sequani region with Labienus in charge; Caesar withdrew to Cisalpine Gaul.

57 - Caesar’s activities alarmed the Belgae to the north. Again, internal dissension among tribes led one, the Remi, to invite Caesar in against another, the Suessiones. Caesar faced 160,000 combatants with 8 legions and Gallic allies. He defeated these as well and incorporated this new territory under his command. Next he besieged the Aduatuci, alleged descendants of the Cimbri and Teutons, 53,000 prisoners taken via siege. Then the Veneti submitted to Rome. Caesar placed 7 legions in winter quarters along the line of the Loire R.

56 – During winter, there were renegade activities of the Veneti by sea. After the conference at Luca Caesar returned to humble the Veneti. He dispatched officers in varying directions, Labienus to watch the Belgae, P. Crassus to Aquitania. Caesar attacked the Veneti by land and sea. Again, his army was quartered for winter along Loire and Seine.

55 – The threat of more Germanic migration caused Caesar to build his famous bridge over the Rhine. Caesar conquered all of Transalpine Gaul by 55 BC

54 - Caesar invaded Britain to cut off assistance to the Veneti on the opposite Gallic shore. There was significant unrest among Gallic kings. Caesar tried to organize them into a Gallic “national” council. The end result was to bring the hierarchy into closer communication than at any time previous, making it easier for them to communicate among one another their intentions to rebel. Caesar conducted a second expedition to Britain, much larger (5 legions, leaving 3 behind to hold Gaul with Labienus).

53 – Winter camps were largely in Belgica. Caesar went to Cisalpine Gaul. With increasing rumors of rebellions, Caesar deposed several dangerous kings. Rebellions erupted along the Rhine (Eburones). Roman camps were overrun. There was an additional uprising of Nervii in Belgica. Caesar lost more than 1 legion. He recruited two more in Cisalpine Gaul and asked Pompey for a loan of another. Caesar laid waste to Gallic territories in the north (Nervii, Treveri, Eburones, Senones, Carnutes). He installed new sets of friendly kings. Roman troops were quartered in these northern regions and in central Celtica for the winter. During winter, numerous Gallic chiefs conspired again and this time organized synchronous rebellions.

52 - The Averni took the lead under a young noble, Vercingetorix, whose father had been executed for aspiring to the throne. Vercingetorix took Gergovia and proclaimed himself king of the Averni. He took hostages from allied tribes and organized a large cavalry. Caesar had to march through snow-laden Alps to reach his army from his winter headquarters in Cisalpine Gaul. Vercingetorix engaged in scorched earth methods to deprive Caesar’s forces of food. Vercingetorix destroyed bridges as well to break up Roman communications. Caesar focused on sieges of rebellious towns. The Gallic desertion became widespread. Caesar’s forces were now stretched thin and over extended. Caesar assembled all forces (10 legions) into a field army to confront Vercingetorix, who at Bibracte was universally proclaimed king of the Gauls. Vercingetorix with 80,000 selected Alesia as his main base. Caesar chose to assault him there. Caesar defeated Vercingetorix in the field and encircled him in the town. Vercingetorix’ calls for help brought 250,000 Gallic warriors. Caesar’s celebrated double circumvallation. With the fall of Alesia and capture of Vercingetorix, the rebellion was crushed.

Caes. Gallic Wars, Commentaries, L. Oppius, Cornelius Balbus, Orgetorix, King of Helvetii, Ariovistus

CAESAR'S LEGATES AND OFFICERS IN GAUL:

58, C. Claudius Pulcher, T. Labienus, Q. pedius, Ser. Sulpicius Rufus, P. Vatinius; P. Licinius Crassus, L. Aurunculeius Cotta

57: P. Crassus, Q. Pedius, Ser. Sulpicius Galba, Q. Titurius Sabinus, Q. Tullius Cicero, P. Vatinius

56: Silius, Terrasidius, Trebius Gallus, Q. Velanius, L. Aurunculeius cotta, T. Labienus, P. Crassus, Q. Pedius, Ser. Sulpicius Galba, Titurius, Q. Cicero, P. Vatinius, D. Iunius Brutus Albinus

55: L. Minucius Basilus, A. cotta, labienus, Q. Numerius Rufus, P. Sulpicius rufus, q. titiurius sabinus,

54: M. Licinius Crassus, Q. laberius durus, L. Aurunculeius cotta, c. fabius, a. hirtius, t. labienus, c. messius, l. munatius plancus, l. roscius fabatus, p. sulpicius rufus, q. titurius sabinus, c. trebonius, q. cicero, q. atrius

53: m. iunius brutus, c. antistius reginus, c. fabius, m. iunius silanus, t. labienus, l. minucius basilus, l. munatius plancus, t. sextius, p. sulpicius rufus, c. trebonius, q. cicero, c. volcatius tullus

52: m. antonius (quaestor), m. aristius, c. antistius reginus, c. caninius rebilus, c. fabius, l. julius caesar, t. labienus, l. minucius basilus, l. munatius plancus, m. sempronius rutilus, t. sextius, p. sulpicius rufus, c. trebonius, q. cicero, d. iunius brutus albinus, c. volusenus quadratus

51: q. fufidius, q. fufius calenus, c. volcatius tullus, q. atius varus, c. volusius quadratus

results

Caesar converted Gaul into his “hidden” powerbase, a fresh recruiting ground for troops and a source of revenue. Caesar ceased to be a “debtor” and became a creditor of senators much like Crassus: Cicero took money from him; cos. Of 50 BC, L. Aemilius Paullus took a huge bribe from Caesar to refurbish the Basilica Aemilia that stood in ruins.

Events in Rome, the tribuneship of P. Clodius, 58 BC

The aristocracy had to build its own mob elements T. Annius Milo. With his and Pompey’s help, Cicero was recalled in 57 BC, but he was now curbed by the triumvirate.

Caesar’s success became a growing threat in Gaul to Pompey and Crassus alike. Caesar’s 5 year grant of imperium in Gaul was due to expire (54 BC). L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, cos. 54, campaigned on the agenda of bringing Caesar back to Rome to stand trial.

The First Triumvirate secretly met at Lucca in 56 BC, renewing the triumvirate. It was agreed that Pompey and Crassus would hold the consulship in 55 BC; Caesar’s extraordinary command in Gaul would be renewed for 5 more years. Pompey and Crassus would each obtain separate extraordinary commands, Pompey in Spain and then the Mediterranean; Crassus in Syria vs. the Parthians. Essentually, all three would have the reassurance of military power bases. Unfortunately, Pompey and Crassus returned to Rome too late to declare their candidacy, so they resorted to mob violence to prevent the elections from taking place. 55 BC began with an interregnum, that is, an interrex. Pompey and Crassus were eventually elected coss.

Pompey remained at Rome and governed his provinces through legates, establishing a new and ominouos precedent. The triumvirate fell apart when Caesar’s daughter Julia died in childbirth in 54 and Crassus died at the Battle of Carrhae in 53. Shortly thereafter, P. Clodius died in a mob confrontation with the band of Milo in 52. Violence erupted in Rome when the mob conducting his funeral burned down the Senate house. Due to the rising state of anarchy, Cato agreed to the proposal of appointing Pompey sole consul for 52. Pompey put the city under martial law, restored order, and allowed for the inquest into Milo’s violence, forcing Milo into exile. Pompey eventually selected as his co-consul an ardent oligarch, Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio Nasica. Pompey allowed all 10 tribunes to pass a law permitting Caesar to be a candidate for the consulship in absence. So his behavior remained ambiguous, seemingly supporting the oligarchs against Caesar, but avoiding an open confrontation with the same.

Caesar’s strategy was to run for office in absentia in the final year of his extraordinary command (50 BC), return to Rome as a triumphing Roman general, enter immediately into his new consulship and obtain another military command, thus avoiding ever having to let go of imperium and thereby escape prosecution. The aristocracy was becoming increasingly polarized between those who wanted to see Caesar stripped of his command, punished, and exiled, and those who simply wanted to avoid a civil war.

As sole consul in 52, Pompey obtained an additional 5 year extension on his command in Spain; and he passed a new law stipulating that no one could receive a province until 5 years had elapsed from the time of his holding a public office. For the next five years the senate was to fill commands at the earliest date at which they became legally vacant. In 51 BC the consul M. Claudius Marcellus proposed to send a successor to Caesar on plea that the war in Gaul was finished in order to deprive him of becoming a candidate for consulship in absentia. The consuls of 50 B C. were L. Aemilius Paullus and C. Claudius Marcellus and a tribune C. Scribonius Curio. All were believed to be Pompey supporters, but Caesar gained over Paullus and Curio with large bribes. It was proposed in Senate that Caesar should lay down his command in Mar. 1 49 BC. This would have required that Caesar return to Rome to seek office as a private citizen in July. Cato declared that he would bring Caesar to trial for his illegal acts as consul. Pompey went outside Rome to recruit an army. The senate, wishing to diminish the size of Caesar’s army used the pretext of the war with Parthia to order that Pompey and Caesar both furnish a legion to be sent to the east. Since Pompey had lent a legion to Caesar in 53 he demanded that back, so Caesar had to send 2 legions. On arrival in Italy they were not sent east but ordered to remain at Capua.

Though war seemed inevitable Caesar continued to negotiate. He offered through Curio to resign if his command if Pompey would do the same. Curio arrived at Rome Jan 1 49 the day the new consuls, L. Cornelius Lentulus and C. Claudius Marcellus took office. It was with great difficulty that M. Antony tribune and Q. Cassius Longinus forced the senate to allow the letter to be read. After a violent debate the motion of Pompey’s father in law Scipio carried that Caesar should disband his army by a certain day and that if he did not do so he would be regarded as an enemy of the state. On 6^th of Jan senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum. Antonius and Cassius fled Rome to Caesar’s army and called on him to protect the inviolable persons of the tribune. The senate entrusted the management of the war to Pompey, determined that fresh levies of troops should be made and voted him money from treasu

The alternative: L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, Brutus and Cassius, P. Servilius Isauricus and others, young aristocrats who joined Cato’s Party of Responsible Government. Could this have succeeded?

Consuls of 51 BC M. Claudius Marcellus (a die-hard Optimate) and Ser. Sulpicius Rufus.

Consuls of 50 BC, L. Aemilius Paullus; C. Claudius Marcellus, like his brother Marcus, ardently anti-Caesarian. Marcellus received as his consular province Cisalpine Gaul, he made a point of scourging a citizen of Novum Comum in Cisalpine Gaul who had been awarded Roman citizenship by Caesar. (Novum Comum was the home of the poet Catullus)

Despite the hawkishness of Marcellus, C. Scribonius Curio, tr pl in 50 BC, took a massive bribe from Caesar and conducted brilliant defense of Caesar’s position in the Senate, winning an overwhelming senatorial vote for both Caesar AND Pompey to surrender their “extraordinary commands”, disarm, and return to Rome as private citizens. This demonstrated the distaste generally in Rome for civil war.

The situation remained unresolved at the end of 50 BC. The new consuls were both die-hard Optimates, C. Claudius Marcellus (a cousin of the previous two) and L. Cornelius Lentulus. Caesar had sent M. Antonius to Rome who obtained the plebeian tribuneship for that year. Antony attempted to block the senatorial proceedings against Caesar, but to no avail. He and Curio were both expelled from Rome by Marcellus. They fled to Caesar’s camp on the border of Cisalpine Gaul, precipitating Caesar’s invasion.

Pauci pontentes – recalcitrant oligarchs, Ahenobarbus, the Marcelli, Metellus Pius, Cato, and others opposed to Caesar. They had successfully lured Pompey into their fold.