Chapter 4: Pagan Religious World Views
INTRODUCTION
This
lecture presents a model for ancient pagan religions. We are going to examine
first the cosmology or world view of the pagan mindset. How did pagans generally
perceive the universe to be organized? We are then going to examine the
inherent logic to the pagan world view. The fact that this world view was
consistent and coherent demonstrates that its believers gave it a considerable
amount of thought. Last we will examine the ways in which inhabitants of
ancient pagan societies communicated with their deities. To ancient pagan
worshipers, their ability to communicate with deities meant that they could to
some degree control them and through them the natural environment.
Hopefully
what will come from this lecture is an appreciation for the manner in which the
pagan religious world view not only fulfilled the needs of ancient societies
but also formed an essential background to their inhabitants' daily lives. It
is difficult to appreciate how ancient peoples went about organizing their
societies, their communities, or their lives without understanding their
spiritual views.
Before
commencing I need to reassure everyone that I am not here to challenge current
religious beliefs. This course exhibits a healthy respect for religion.
Religion stands as one of but a handful of intellectual disciplines that asks
the big questions -- why are we here, where did we come from, and where are we
going. What we will examine here is a pagan world view that disappeared from
the Mediterranean world some 1500 years ago. We will examine this as
objectively as possible. What I hope is that we will arrive at a greater
appreciation for the logic that is inherent in the pagan mindset and a respect
for the insight and intelligence that it exhibited.
In
a word -- ancient pagan peoples were extremely superstitious. All around them
natural phenomena released destructive energy that they did not understand. All
they knew is that these forces were stronger than human kind. Ancient Pagan
religions focused on the causation and/or the "deterrence" of
destructive or frightening natural phenomena. Lacking scientific understanding,
prehistoric peoples presumed that any force more powerful than humankind --
lightening, floods, earthquakes, volcanoes, etc. -- were inherently divine or
the direct manifestations of divine forces. The assignment of names and
personalities to these various manifestations enabled prehistoric peoples to
identify (and to classify) divinities, and hence to devise a means by which to
communicate with them. To some degree the process resembled the tagging of a
crime scene. The more divinities one could identify, the greater the likelihood
ultimately that each one could be communicated with and appeased.
In
addition to identifying forces of Nature, pagan religions were also concerned
with the process of the "life cycle," the inevitability of Birth,
Death, and Regeneration. These events represent the physical "rites of
passage" for human kind, and evoke the most pious, powerful emotions known
to man. The love that exists between man and woman, the love
of mother and father for their children (and vice versa), the pain at losing a
loved one, and the fear of death.
Also,
much of ancient worship concerned Totemism,
that is, the use of magical power to gain control over one's food supply. Bound
up in this concept was the recognition that all organic life inherently must
consume organic life in order to survive. In essence, one is what one eats.
When combined with the broader concepts of anthropomorphic divinities existing
and manifesting themselves on the earth, the power of taking life acquired
greater significance. How did one know, when taking the life of a deer in the
forest, that one was not in fact slaying the favorite deer of the huntress
goddess Artemis? This is precisely what occurred to Agamemnon, the King of
Bronze Age Mycenae, who was forced to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia in
recompense. To avoid the risk of divine retribution for the taking of life,
ancient peoples intrinsically recognized the sacred character of life by
offering to share the fruits of the hunt with the gods through sacrifice.
Despite its orgiastic tendencies, sacrifice implicitly recognized the sacredness
of all life.
I. PAGAN COSMOLOGY. HOW DID
PAGANS VIEW THE ORGANIZATION OF THE SPIRITUAL UNIVERSE?
Polytheism - the belief in the existence of many gods. There
were anthropomorphic and non anthropomorphic deities in most pagan cosmologies.
BEWILDERING
WILLINGNESS TO INCORPORATE MORE GODS AS A MEANS TO OBTAIN ACCESS TO MORE MAGIC.
Syncretism -- the merging of religious beliefs
across cultures
Sky Gods, Earth Gods, and the land surface of the earth
Earth Gods (Chthonic Gods) -- Mother Goddess Isis, Demeter and
Persephone, Inanna, Hades/Pluto. Earth gods were blind and followed the
“letter of the law”. If a mortal failed to abide by a sacred agreement, that
person must be punished.
Sky Gods (Olympic Gods) - Zeus, the Olympic pantheon. These were usually associated with
celestial bodies, the sun, the moon, stars, etc. The sky gods controlled the
changes of day and night, the seasons, and could induce storms, floods,
drought, snow, and wind. These powers inevitably gave them control over life,
death, and regeneration. Their ability to peer down on humans enabled them to
see both good and bad behavior. They recognized “equity”, the fact that a
mortal could be prevented from fulfilling sacred vows by means beyond his or
her control.
Generally, Sky gods gave good things and were looked to with hope;
Earth gods were feared but viewed as unavoidable.
Numina, non-anthropomorphic deities, or spirit
forces. Hestia,
goddess of hearth
How are we to DEFINE THE NATURE OF THE GODS? THEY EXHIBIT THE BEST AND WORST OF HUMAN
NATURE ON A SUPERHUMAN SCALE
CAN WE VIEW THIS IN BROADER TERMS?
Polytheistic vs. Monotheistic world views: POLYTHEISTIC WORLD VIEWS
ATTEMPT TO EXPLAIN THE RANDOM CHARACTER OF FORCES OF NATURE. "STUFF
HAPPENS". NATURE IS NEITHER MORAL NOR IMMORAL, BUT RATHER AMORAL.
MONOTHEISM INSISTS THAT THINGS HAPPEN FOR A REASON, THAT THERE IS INHERENT
ORDER AND LOGIC TO THE UNIVERSE. IF THERE IS LOGIC THEN THERE IS
Hubris, arrogance, to put oneself at the level
of the gods, to deny their existence or say they had no power over one. To
engage in hubris was to invite divine retribution. Since the gods were immortal
they enjoyed a different sense of time and place. For greater effect they could
choose to punish the guilty party's loved ones, his village, or his entire
society through the introduction of plague and pestilence. In essence, the act
of hubris put the entire society at risk and therefore was punishable by death.
The fear of the unknown was one way by which religious authorities imposed
conformity on their societies.
Socrates ran afoul this logic. A SENSIBLE MAN FEARED THE GODS AND
SCRUPULOUSLY FOLLOWED THEIR PRESCRIPTIONS. CAREFUL ATTENTION TO THE WISHES OF
THE GODS ENSURED THE MAINTENANCE OF ORDER, THE REVIVAL OF NATURE, AND THE
PERMANENCE OF LIFE.
II. Principle Means of Pagan
Communication with the Gods:
Ritual, Sacrifice, and
Divination
Ritual was the invocation of the gods through
magical prayers and chants. If properly invoked the god could be compelled
against his or her will. Prayers, chants, oaths, curses
(black magic). Inherently conservative tendencies.
Sacrifice, the gift or offering to the god in
exchange for which man could ask a favor. Implies human power
over divine.
THE ANCIENT SUMERIANS BELIEVED THAT THE GODS CREATED MAN TO FEED
AND TO SERVE THEM. The gods did not necessarily need to eat, but they longed
for the reminder of the pleasure of eating. The gods wanted to experience
vicariously the corporeal pleasures of human life – eating, drinking, sexual
relations, sleep – even though they did not require
them. These were the only genuine proofs of human existence, and since
mortality was fleeting it possessed value to humans and gods alike. The value
of corporeal pleasures gave humans a handle over their gods.
Utnapushtim and the sacrifice following the flood – the
gods swarmed like flies about the sacrifice.
Human dealings with the gods were viewed in terms of a CONTRACTUAL RELATIONSHIP. DO UT DES
[For discussion of this, see Walter Burkert,
Homo Necans, and Greek Religion]
There were both blood and non-blood sacrifices. Sacrifices represented
social interaction at a number of levels: they were a Feast (meat), they
represented the sharing of life with a deity (communion), they affected the sociological
sight of blood, that is, the human power of taking life, and they celebrated an
ecstatic experience shared in a collective, human sacrifice.
Divination --the belief that the gods sent signs
predicting the future and that these signs could be interpreted by skilled
professionals. These were what the god returns, invoked or uninvoked,
invoked signs imply that gods could be summoned magically or even compelled to
give answers to human prayers and requests. Diviniation
took many forms: astrology (astronomy), heptascopy
(sacrificial livers - anatomy, medicine), the evil eye, and apotropaic
devices. Templum ritually purified area for divination
HEPTASCOPY - SHAPE OF LIVER
SACRED CHICKENS
FLIGHT OF BIRDS
WATCHING THE SKIES FOR NATURAL PHENOMENA
THE DELPHIC ORACLE
DICE, ASTROLOGY ETC
It is important to realize that our worst superstitious attitudes
today were officially sanctioned state policy of the past. Days were viewed as Fas or Nefas. Marcus Brutus’ army
killed an African (black) man who crossed its path on the road to
MOST IMPORTANTLY, RELIGIOUS LAW FURNISHED THE BASIS FOR SECULAR
LAW. RELIGIOUS OBSERVANCES DETERMINED WHETHER SECULAR ACTIVITIES SUCH AS LAW
COURTS AND POLITICAL ASSEMBLIES COULD OR COULD NOT OCCUR. WHAT NEEDS TO BE STRESSED IS THE INSEPARABLE
CHARACTER OF RELIGIOUS AND SECULAR LIFE IN MOST OF THESE CIVILIZATIONS.
ON ANY GIVEN DAY SACRIFICES IN THE HOUSE, IN THE CIVIC CENTER, NO
PUBLIC ACTIVITY COULD OCCUR WITHOUT INVOCATION OF THE GODS -- MARKETS,
ASSEMBLIES, COURTS, WARS. NOTHING WAS DONE WITHOUT THE
CONSENT OF THE GODS. ROMANS AND JUST WARS
SOCIETIES RELIED ON RELIGIOUS POWER TO PROTECT SECULAR ACTIVITIES
-- OATHS, PRAYER & CURSE.
Religious activity formed, therefore, a regular, permanent
background to social activity and was so commonplace that it was taken for
granted by ancient writers. Not only were activities such as public rituals,
sacrifices and divination daily occurrences, but reading audiences knew this as
well as the writers themselves. Religious observances, religious omens and
beliefs were all around them. Ancient writers knew this, understood it in
passing, and in essence took it for granted that their readers were fully
cognizant and thus offer little explanation.
III. AFTER LIFE
Standard view-- after death, souls of
departed travel to underworld
Sumerian gods:
Anu - sky god (Uruk)
Enlil (Marduk, Zeus) air
god (Nippur)
Inanna (Ishtar, Aphrodite) - love and fertility
Enki (EA) earth and water, life giving (Eridu)
Utu (Shamash) - Justice
Nanna (Sin) - mood goddess (UR)
Hadad - storm god
It is essential for modern readers of ancient texts of all kinds
-- the Old Testament, Demosthenes Speeches, Plutarch's
lives, what have you, to inform themselves of the inherent organization and
logic of pagan religious world views or much of what the ancient texts relate
goes unintelligible, imperceptible, if not misunderstood. This is why this
course devotes so much time to this question. THE CENTRALITY OF RELIGIOUS
ACTIVITIES TO ANCIENT SOCIAL LIFE is PERHAPS THE SINGLE GREATEST FACET OF PAST
CIVILIZATIONS THAT HAS BECOME LOST ON STUDENTS TODAY.