As we discuss significant events in Venetian history and culture, we’ll try to update this chronology

330

Roman Emperor Constantine I sets up his new capital in Byzantium after his conversion to Christianity.  He was the first Christian Roman emperor.

25 March, 421

Mythical founding of Venice (during the feast of the Annunciation of the Virgin).  421 is also the legendary date for the foundation of the church of San Giacomo di Rialto. 

434-53

Invasions of Attila, king of the Huns, driving mainland residents to the lagoon islands of what would become Venice. In 452, Attila the Hun destroys Altinum, driving people to the lagoon islands.  The foundations of Altinum have recently been rediscovered near Marco Polo Airport, seven miles north of Venice.

568-69

Alboin, King of the Lombards, invades Northern Italy, driving mainland residents once again to the lagoon islands of what would become Venice.  Unlike the Huns, the Lombards came to stay, thus forcing the lagoon residents to establish a home. Click here for July 2009 ScienceNOW article on rediscovery.

727

Orso Ipato elected as first Doge of Venice. 

774

Defeat of Lombard kingdom by Charles I, King of the Franks (more commonly known as Charlemagne).  The Franks divided the Lombard kingdom with the Pope at Rome, thus creating the Papal States.

1. 787
   

2. Pope Hadrian is forced to crown Charlemagne’s son Pepin King of Italy.
   

3. 
   

4. 805
   

5. Doge Oberlerio degli Antinori commits Venice to the sovereignty of Charlemagne's Frankish empire (by then renamed the Holy Roman Empire).
   

6. 
   

7. 809
   

8. 

   Doge Oberlerio degli Antinori invites Pepin to send an armed force up the Adriatic from Ravenna to occupy Venice and its lagoon.  In 810, Pepin is stopped at the lagoon (at Pellistrina) because of the difficulty of attacking the lagoon islands.  Rivo Alto (Rialto) was even harder to attack, leading afterwards to the move of Venice’s ducal seat from Malamocco to Ri’Alto.  After six months, Pepin’s troops withdraw, marking an important point in the symbolic unification of the Venetian people. 
   

9. 
   

10. 811
    

11. Pax Nicephori between Charlemagne and the Eastern empire establishes Venice as a semi-independent province of Byzantium. 
    

810-27

During the reign of Agnello Particiaco (811-27), the ducal seat is moved from Malamocco to the current location of Venice (then the ‘Rivo Alto’ [Rialto] or “High Shore”).

828

Theft of the relics of Saint Mark the Evangelist from Alexandria. In 829, the Greek soldier-saint Theodore is replaced as the patron saint of Venice by the evangelist Saint Mark.

Under Doge Pietro II Orseolo, Dalmatia finally in complete control of Venetians after many years of battle, tribute-payment, and political maneuvering in response to Dalmatian pirates.  Venetian empire begins.

1155-74

Frederick I Barbarossa’s wars in Italy; his fifth incursion in 1174 is repelled by the pro-papal Lombard League, which was joined by Venice.

1189-92

Third Crusade, led by Frederick I Barbarossa, Richard I (Lionheart of England), and Philip II of France.  On June 1190, Frederick drowns.  The crusade is not successful in its main goal of capturing Jerusalem.  This failure led to the Fourth Crusade six years later.

1202-04

Fourth Crusade.  The initial goal was the capture of Jerusalem but the invaders ended up instead invading Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine empire.

Constantinople seized at the end of of the Fourth Crusade, largely thanks to the political maneuvering of Doge Enrico Dandolo.  As a result of the crusade, Venice controls the entire Eastern Adriatic.  Venice also buys Crete from Boniface of Montferrat, leader of the crusade, thus ensuring that Venice controls the trade route to Constantinople and Asia Minor.  As its part of the looting of Constantinople, Venice brings back the four horses that stand over the entrance of St. Mark’s Basilica.

1207

Venice extends its imperial power by holding sway over the Duchy of the Archipelago, which was created by Marco Sanudo in 1207 (including the Greek islands of the Cyclades, especially Naxos).

Wars with Genoa. This is the time period when the two great thalassocracies of the period compete for control of trade routes to the East.  The first two Genoese Wars (1255-1270, 1294-9) produced naval victories for each side in an almost random pattern. On balance, the first war favored the Venetians and the second the Genoese. Fifty years of relative peace ensued, the belligerants heavily occupied by other challenges, including awesome onslaughts of plague. The Third Genoese War (1351-5) began well for the Venetians but ended badly. Control of the Genoa government, however, had passed to the Visconti family of Milan, and Venice was able to negotiate a better peace treaty than its military posture would have suggested. From one point of view the Fourth Genoese War (1378-81), called the War of Chioggia, can be viewed as a defeat for the Venetians, but Venice's dramatic and climactic victory at Chioggia, 1379-80, pulled defeat from the jaws of complete disaster. (See a Virtual History of Venice for more.)

1. 1255-70
   

2. First Genoese War
   

3. 
   

1266

Marco Polo’s father and uncle meet Kublai Khan in Dadu (present day Beijing, China).  Kublai Khan asks them to deliver a letter to the Pope and requests that they return with 100 Christians acquainted with the Seven Arts (grammar, rhetoric, logic, geometry, arithmetic, music and astronomy) plus oil of the lamp in Jerusalem. In 1271, Marco Polo embarks with his father and uncle to visit Kublai Khan, finally arriving there around 1275 delivering the sacred oil from Jerusalem and letters from the Pope.

c. 1265-1321

Life of Dante Alighieri.

c. 1267-1337

Life of Giotto.

1. 
   

2. 1294-99
   

3. Second Genoese War
   

4. 
   

1297

Establishment of Venice’s republican regime.  In the act known as the Serrata (Closing of the Great Council), membership in the city’s ruling class is limited to a select set of nearly two hundred families.

1305-78

The Avignon Papacy, during which time the Bishops of Rome (i.e., the Roman Catholic Popes) reside at Avignon.  The Avignon eventually gains a reputation for corruption, leading to the return of the court to Rome. 

10 July, 1310

Creation of the Council of Ten in response to the revolt against the Doge led by Bajamonte Tiepolo.  The Council of Ten was composed of ten members elected to a one-year term by the Great Council.  Members could not be elected for two successive terms.

1. 
   

c. 1320-1391

Life of Guisto de’ Menabuoi.

1. 
   

2. 

   1328-29
   

3. The Della Scala family, the rulers of Verona, capture Padua and Treviso, thus bringing the Della Scala empire to the shores of Venice itself, forcing Venice to attack in October 1336, leading to the capture of Padua and a military alliance with Milan, Manua, Este and Florence. The resulting peace treaty with the Della Scala family also gave Venice Treviso. Venice placed her new mainland territories under the rule of the Carreras of Padua who helped Venice defeat the Della Scala family; however, the Carreras then sought to get out from under Venetian control.
   

   

1348

The Black Death devastates Venice, reducing its population by one half.

1. 1351-55
   

2. Third Genoese War
   

1369-73

War with the Kingdom of Hungary, ultimately leading to Venetian victory.  The Carraras of Padua side with Hungary in the conflict.

1378-1417

The Western Schism or Papal Schism. After Pope Gregory XI moves the Papal court back to Rome, he dies and a Roman pope is elected.  French cardinals respond by electing an alternative pope (anti-pope), causing what is usually referred to as the Western schism. For a short time, there were three rival popes (at Avignon, Pisa, and Rome).

1. 1378-81
   

2. Fourth Genoese War (also termed the War of Chiogga).  The Carraras of Padua side with the Genoans.  Despite being surrounded and near defeat, Venice manages to defeat the Genoese fleet at Chiogga. Exhausted by her wars, Venice elects to cede Treviso and her other mainland possessions to the Duke of Austria, whom she deemed to be less of a long-term threat than the Carraras. Venice retreats to her island fortress.
   

c. 1386-1466

Life of Donatello.

1382-88

The Carraras place Treviso under seige and offer Austrians 100,000 ducats for Treviso and the other former mainland possessions of Venice; however, in 1388 Venice arranges an alliance with Milan.  Milanese forces capture Padua and return Treviso to permanent Venetian control, retaining Padua and its western possessions for itself.

Venice sides with the Carraras again (along with Florence and Bologna) to oust Milan from Padua. Once the Carraras are back in power in Padua, they attack Milan-controlled Vicenza. The Milanese arrange for Venice to attack Padua to stop the Carraran western advance. Venetians capture Padua in November 1404; they execute Francesco Carrara and his son Jacopo. Venetians now control Padua, Vicenza and Verona, along with Treviso.

c. 1396-c. 1470

Life of Jacopo Bellini, father of Gentile and Giovanni Bellini and father-in-law of Andrea Mantegna.

Venice acquires Friuli as a result of tensions with the King of Hungary, who had gained control of Dalmatia.  In 1420, the Venetians succeed against the Patriarch of Aquileia, thus wresting control of Udine (and doubling her mainland territory).  In the same year, Venice reasserts her control of Dalmatia. 

1424-53

Eventual Ottoman victory over the Byzantine Greeks, culminating in the fall of Constantinople. All Venetian outposts in the eastern Mediterranean are suddenly at risk. 

Wars in Lombardy: a series of struggles between the Republic of Venice and the Duchy of Milan, leading to the five major Italian territorial powers that make up the map of Italy until the Italian Wars (i.e., Venice, Milan, Florence, Naples, and the Papacy).  The wars ravaged the economy of Lombardy and weakened the power of Venice.  The Peace of Lodi in 1454 brought 40 years of comparative peace to Northern Italy.  This is the time of the Medici rule of Florence, first Cosimo de’ Medici, then Piero “the Gouty,” then Lorenzo Il Magnifico.  The death of Lorenzo marks the end of the Golden Age of Renaissance Florence.  Both Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo Buonarroti were active (and tied to Lorenzo) during this period.  In 1428, Venice acquires Brescia and Bergamo as a result of this struggle.

c. 1429-1507

Life of Gentile Bellini.

c. 1430-1516

Life of Giovanni Bellini.

c. 1431-1506

Life of Andrea Mantegna.

1439

Johannes Gutenberg begins using movable type printing and develops the printing press.

1450s

Johannes Gutenberg prints his Gutenberg Bible in the Vulgate. It is one of the first books printed in Europe.

1470

After series of struggles with the Ottoman empire, Venice loses control of Negroponte.  The resulting peace with the Ottomans forces Venice to cede Albania and the Greek mainland.  Intermittent wars with the Ottomans continue for the next 100 years.

1473-1543

Life of Nicolaus Copernicus.

c. 1477/78-1510

Life of Giorgione.

1481-84

Venice acquires Rovigo and the Polesine after alliance with Papal States against Ferrara and Naples.

1482

By this date, Venice had established itself as the printing capital of Europe. 

1486-1570

Life of Jacopo Sansovino.

c. 1488/90-1576

Life of Titian.

1489

Venice acquires Cypress.

1490

Aldus Manutius, the Elder settles in Venice and soon begins his Aldine Press.  Aldus was the first to introduce small (octavo) paperback editions of works (i.e., bound in vellum).  His press also created italics.

1492

Christopher Columbus discovers America.  This fact eventually leads to an eclipse of Venetian power as new economic powers build their strength on the riches of the New World.  Venice’s powerful technology, the fixed-oar galley, is at this point eclipsed by the large sail-powered ships of Spain, Portugal, and England.

1497-98

Vasco da Gama reaches the cape of Good Hope in 1497 then continues to Calicut on the West coast of India in 1498. Now the large and lucrative trade between Northern Europe and Asia could bypass entirely the trade routes through the Mediterranean Ocean and Black Sea that Venice dominated.

1494-1559

The Great Italian Wars.  The aftermath is that Habsburg Spain becomes the dominant power in Europe after 1559.  France is weakened and the states of Italy are reduced to second-rate powers.

1. 1494-98
   

2. Italian War of 1494-98.  Ludivico Sforza of Milan joins with Charles VIII of France against the Republic of Venice.  Charles attacks Italy finally sacking Naples.  That act leads to the creation of the League of Venice, which forces Charles and his French forces back to Italy.  Ludivico eventually betrays Charles and holds on to Milan until 1499.
   

3. 
   

4. 1499-1504
   

5. Charles’ successor, Louis XII, invades Lombardy and seizes Milan.  In 1500, Louis and Ferdinand I of Spain agreed to attack Naples and divide it between them.  They succeed but disagreements about the terms of the partition lead to war between Louis and Ferdinand, ultimately forcing Louis to withdraw in 1503. Spain is now in control of Southern Italy to Sicily. France controls Italy north of Milan.
   

6. 
   

1500

As a direct result of the Italian War that breaks out in 1499 (see above), Leonardo da Vinci flees to Venice.  There he meets and influences the painter Giorgione.

1. 
   

1508-1580

Life of Andrea Palladio.

1. 
   

2. 1508-16
   

3. War of the League of Cambrai or War of the Holy League, begun after a failed effort by Pope Julius II to seize cities under Venetian rule.  The League established to defeat the Venetian republic included the Papacy, France (under Louis XII), the Holy Roman Empire (under Maximilian I) and Spain (under Ferdinand I).
   

1. 14 May, 1509
   

2. Battle of Agnadello (or Vailà) when the Venetian republic lost the region of Lombardy to the French army under Louis XII.
   

3. 
   

4. 17 July, 1509
   

5. Padovans revolt restoring Venetian control.
   

6. 
   

7. 15-30 September, 1509
   

8. Seige of Padua, leading to withdrawal of forces of Maximilian I.
   

9. 
   

10. 1510
    

11. Veneto-Papal alliance against the French fairs poorly and French seize more territory.
    

12. 
    

13. 1511
    

14. Holy League against France (including Spain, Holy Roman Empire, and England under Henry VIII) succeeds in driving out the French.
    

15. 
    

16. 1513
    

17. Franco-Venetian alliance created because Pope Julius and Maximilian refuse to return the Veneto to Venice. James IV of Scotland invades England at the request of Louis but he is killed and Scottish forces are destroyed at the Battle of Flodden Field on 9 September, 1513.
    

18. 
    

19. 1515
    

20. After the deaths of Julius and Louis, France (under Francis I) and Venice are able to reclaim their territory, returning everything to the status quo of 1508 (with the Veneto and much of Lombardy under Venetian rule).
    

21. 
    

October 31, 1517

Martin Luther nails his Ninety-Five Theses to the door of the All Saints’ Church in Wittenberg, Saxony (now Germany).  This date is usually given as the start of the Protestant Reformation.  Denominations that eventually emerged from the Reformation include the Lutherans, Calvinists, Presbyterians, and Anglicans.

1. 
   

1518-94

Life of Tintoretto.

1. 
   

2. 1521-26
   

3. Italian War of 1521-26 or the Four Years’ War, pitting Francis I and the Republic of Venice against the new Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Henry VIII, and the Papal States under Pope Leo X (who needed to ally with Charles against Martin Luther).  Francis I’s defeat at Pavia in 1525 led to the Treaty of Madrid where Francis surrendered his claims to Italy, Flanders, and Burgundy. Although the Italian wars continue for another three decades, France fails to regain significant territory in Italy, finally relinquishing its claims after the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559.
   

1. 1526-30
   

2. War of the League of Cognac pitting Charles V (a Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor) and Spain against the League of Cognac (France, Pope Clement VII, the Republic of Venice, England, the Duchy of Milan, and Florence). Charles V is, ultimately, successful.
   

1528-88

Life of Paolo Veronese.

1. 1536-38
   

2. Italian War of 1536-38: third war between Charles and Francis after the death of Francesco Maria Sforz, duke of Milan. After some back and forth, little is changed on the map of Italy, though Turin is now in the hands of the French.  Milan remains in French hands.
   

1538-80

Period of Palladio’s villas.

1542

Pope Paul III establishes the Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition.

1. 
   

2. 1542-46
   

3. Italian War of 1542-46.  Francis I allies himself with Suleiman I of the Ottoman Empire  to launch a final invasion of Italy.  After some back and forth, the map of Europe remains the same. 
   

1543

Nicolaus Copernicus publishes On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres just before his death. In it, he argues for a heliocentric cosmology, thus contradicting Aristotle, Ptolemy, and church doctrine.

1545-63

1546-1591

Life of Veronica Franco.

1. 1551-59
   

2. Italian War of 1551-59.  In 1551, Henry II succeeds Francis to the throne of France and he declares war against Charles.  Charles abdicates in 1556, splitting the Habsburg empire between Philip II of Spain and Ferdinand I. Ultimately, Henry II renounces claims to Italy in 1559. 
   

1564-1642

Life of Galileo Galilei.

1571

Venice loses control of Cypress to the Ottoman empire.

Paolo Veronese is called before the Inquisition for heresy because of his painting “Lord’s Last Supper,” which was seen as failing to follow the Council of Trent’s decrees of 1563.  For this reason, Veronese renamed the painting “The Feast in the House of Levi.” The painting is at the Accademia.

1575-77

The Black Death once again devastates Venice. Titian dies as a result.

1581

First printed guidebook to Venice published by Francesco Sansovino.

1598-1682

Life of Baldassarre Longhena

1606-07

Interdict Controversy. Pope Paul V excommunicates the Doge and the Senate and declares an interdict on divine services in the Republic’s territories, which would have deprived the populace not only of masses but also such important sacraments as baptisms and marriages. The Venetian government treats the interdict as null and void. The Venetian clergy largely disregard the interdict, and discharge their functions as usual, with the exception of the Jesuits

1616

Galileo is ordered by the Inquisition to abandon his Copernican opinions.

1618-48

Thirty Years’ War, which starts as a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics but increasingly becomes a struggle for supremacy between the House of Habsburg (rulers of the Holy Roman Empire from 1452-1740, as well as Austria and Spain) and the House of Bourbon (in France).  The rivalry between these two European powers persisted from 1516-1756 and the hostility between France and Germany could be said to have been renewed with the two world wars of the twentieth century.  The end of the war is often given as the end of the historical period of the Protestant Reformation.

1630

The Black Death kills a third of Venice’s 150,000 citizens. Doge Nicolò Contarini makes a public vow to erect a church called the Salute, asking for the Virgin Mary's divine intercession to rid the city of the plague.  Baldassarre Longhena won the competition to build the church. On Nov. 21, Venetians still celebrate the feast-day of the Madonna della Salute in memory of the 1630 plague.

1633

Following a papal trial, Galileo is found “vehemently suspect of heresy” and is ordered imprisoned (later commuted to house arrest).  Publication of his works is forbidden.

1669

Venice loses Crete to Ottoman Turks.

1696-1770

Life of Giambattista Tiepolo.

1701-1785

Life of Pietro Longhi.

1712-1793

Life of Francesco Guardi.

1716

Venice loses Morea to Ottoman Turks.

1725-98

Life of Giacomo Casanova de Seingalt.

1749-1832

Life of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.

1788-1824

Life of Lord Byron.

12 May, 1797

With Napoleon Bonaparte’s troops positioned at the edge of the lagoon, the Great Council votes itself out of existence.

12 October, 1797

Venice becomes Austrian territory after the Treaty of Campo Formio.

1802-38

Life of L.E.L. (Letitia Elizabeth Landon).

1805

Venice is taken from Austria in the Treaty of Pressburg and becomes part of Napoleon’s Kingdom of Italy. Napoleon pronounces himself Italian Emperor.

1812-89

Life of Robert Browning.

1814

Venice is returned to Austria after the final defeat of Napoleon.

1814-18

Years of sever depression in Venice, leading to diseases of malnutrition (e.g., pellagra).

1834-1903

Life of James McNeill Whistler.

1841-46

Construction of railroad bridge between Venice and the mainland.

1843-1916

Life of Henry James.

1848-49

A revolt briefly reestablishes the Venetian Republic under Daniele Manin.

1856-1925

Life of John Singer Sargent.

1861

The Kingdom of Italy is established, but excludes the Republics of Rome, Venice, and San Marino.

1866

Following the Third Italian War of Independence, Venice becomes a part of the new Kingdom of Italy, following a referendum.

1871

Rome becomes the Italian capital.

1878-1955

Life of Thomas Mann.

1906-78

Life of Carlo Scarpa.

1915-18

Italy joins World War I on the side of the Allies.

1922

The Fascist Party comes into power when Benito Mussollini is made prime minister by coup d’état.

1922

Benito Mussolini becomes prime minister of Italy.

1925

Benito Mussolini becomes dictator of Italy by beginning to dismantle all constitutional and conventional restraints on his power.

1929

The State of Vatican City is created.

1936-37

Axis formed with Nazi Germany. Abyssinia (Ethiopia) conquered.

1939

Albania annexed by Italy.

1939-45

World War II.

1. 1940
   

2. Italy enters World War II on the side of the Germans.
   

3. 
   

4. 1943
   

5. Italy changes sides, joining the Allies and declaring war on Germany.
   

6. 
   

7. 1944
   

8. Allies liberate Rome.
   

9. 
   

10. 1945
    

11. Mussolini executed by partisans.
    

1946

In referendum, Italians vote in favor of a Republic.

1947

Italy signs peace treaty, ceding border areas to France and Yugoslavia, Dodecanese to Greece, and giving up colonies.

1948

Italian elections: De Gaspieri of Christian Democrats heads coalition.

1949

Italy is a founder member of NATO.

1955

Italy joins the United Nations.

1957

Founder member of European Economic Community. Aided by funds from that organization and by Marshall Aid, industrial growth accelerates.

1964

Christian Democratic government under Aldo Moro forms coalition with Socialist Party.

4 November 1966

Highest acqua alta on record occurs (194 cm).

1969

Red Brigades, extreme left terrorist group, formed.

1972

Support for extreme right reaches postwar peak (9%). Rise in urban terrorism by both extreme left and right.

1976

Communist Party support reaches a peak of 34% under Enrico Berlinguer's Eurocommunist philosophy.

1978

Aldo Moro abducted and murdered by Red Brigades.

22 December 1979

Second highest acqua alta on record occurs (166 cm).

January 1980

Formation of the Liga Veneta, the first regionalist political party in Italy, preceding Lega Lombarda by fours years and eventually a founding member of Lega Nord.  Members of the Liga Veneta advocate for more autonomy or even independence from Italy. Over the next two decades, despite occasional electoral ups and downs, the Veneto proves itself to be one of the most independentist regions in Italy, often voting strongly in support of the Liga Veneta and other splinter regional parties.

1983

First Socialist prime minister, Bettino Craxi, elected.  Italy at this point has the largest non-ruling Communist party in Europe.

1984

Roman Catholicism loses its status as the state religion of the country.

1986

338 Mafia members convicted of organized crime.

1 February 1986

Third highest acqua alta on record (158 cm).

February 1991

Liga Veneta joins Lega Lombarda and other regional parties to form the Lega Nord, which advocates for more autonomy for Northern Italy (some even calling from independence from the rest of Italy). The Lega Nord adopted the name Padania to describe Italian territories above the La Spezia - Rimini line (see image on right). 

1994

Silvio Berlusconi elected prime minister, but soon after (in 1995) is forced to resign due to financial irregularities.

1994

Italy joins European Union.

29 January 1996

Fire at La Fenice guts the theater.

1996

Romano Prodi elected prime minister after forming the center-left Olive Tree coalition; he serves until October 1998.

October 1998

Prodi’s government collapses when the Communist Refoundation Party withdraws its support. This leads to the formation of a new government with Massimo D'Alema (of the Democrats of the Left) as Prime Minister; he serves until 2000. The Democrats of the Left developed from the Democratic Party of the Left, which was a reshaping of the Italian Communist Party.

1999

The Euro replaces the Lira as the currency of Italy.

2001

Silvio Berlusconi elected prime minister again; serves until 2006.

14 December 2003

La Fenice reopens (as a copy of the previous theater).

April 2006

Romano Prodi elected prime minister again, in coalition with the Democrats of the Left.

2007

The Veneto recognizes Venetian as official language of the region, alongside Italian.

October 2007

The center-left Democratic Party is formed as a merger of various left-wing and centrist parties, especially The Democrats of the Left.

November 2007

Silvio Berlusconi announces in Milan that his party, Forza Italia, would merge into the conservative People of Freedom party (il popolo della libertà), allied with the Lega Nord and the Sicilian Movement for Autonomy.

April 2008

Silvio Berlusconi elected prime minister for a third time, forming the 62nd government since the end of World War II (compared to 12 for the United States) and the first Italian legislature since World War II to contain no self-identified Communists.

1 December 2008

Fourth highest acqua alta on record (156 cm).

March 27, 2009

Official inauguration of the People of Freedom party with Berlusconi as president.

June 2009

European Parliamentary election. Liga Veneta (as part of the Lega Nord) confirms its strength by gaining 28.4% and three MEPs: Lorenzo Fontana, a rising star from Verona, Giancarlo Scottà and Mara Bizzotto. Also in 2009 the party won two more provinces in the Veneto: Venice (until then a stronghold of the left) and Belluno.

October 2009

HONR 399 first taught in Venice.

Acknowledgments

Some maps and a few historical details are taken from A Virtual History of Venice, which we recommend:

http://www.boglewood.com/timeline/

Some twentieth-century events borrowed from the World Desk Reference chronology found here:

http://dev.prenhall.com/divisions/hss/worldreference/IT/chronology.html