1. Polybius (202-120 BCE), Universal History Bk. 6,52-56 (tr. Scott-Kilvert)

Let us now consider detailed differences [between Romans and Carthaginians], such as, in the first place, the conduct of the war. Here we find that in operations at sea the Carthaginians, as might be expected, were better trained and equipped, because seamanship had long been their national calling and they occupy themselves with the sea more than any other people; but in military campaigns the Romans train themselves to an altogether higher standard. In fact they devote their whole energies to this aspect of war, whereas the Carthaginians largely neglect their infantry, though they do show some degree of interest in their cavalry. The reason for this is that they employ foreign and mercenary troops, whereas those of the Romans are citizens and natives of their own country; so in this respect too we must judge the Roman political system to be superior to the Carthaginian. The Carthaginians depend at all times on the courage of mercenaries to safeguard their prospects of freedom, but the Romans rely on the bravery of their own citizens and the help of their allies. The result is that even if they happen to be defeated at the outset, the Romans carry on the war with all their resources, but this is impossible for the Carthaginians. For the Romans, knowing themselves to be fighting for their country and their children, can never weaken in the fury of their struggle, but continue to fight with all their heart and soul until the enemy is overcome. It follows that although the Romans are, as I have mentioned, much less skilled in the handling of their naval forces, they nevertheless prove successful in the end, because of the gallantry of their men; for although skill in seamanship is of great importance in naval battles, it is the courage of the marines which proves the decisive factor in winning a victory. The fact is that Italians in general have a natural advantage over Phoenicians and Africans both in physical strength and in personal courage, but at the same time their institutions contribute very powerfully towards fostering a spirit of bravery in their young men. I quote just one example to illustrate the pains taken by the Roman state to produce men who will endure anything to win a reputation for valor in their country.

Whenever one of their celebrated men dies, in the course of the funeral procession his body is carried with every kind of honor into the Forum to the so-called rostra, sometimes in a upright position so as to be conspicuous, or else, more rarely, recumbent. The whole mass of the people stand round to watch, and his son, if he has left one of adult age who can be present, or if not some other relative, then mounts the rostra and delivers an address which recounts the virtues and successes achieved by the dead man during his lifetime. By these means the whole populace—not only those who played some part in these exploits, but those who did not—are involved in the ceremony, so that when the facts of the dead man’s career are recalled to their minds and brought before their eyes, their sympathies are so deeply engaged that the loss seems not to be confined to the mourners but to be a public one which affects the whole people. Then after the burial of the body and the performance of the customary ceremonies, they place the image [imago] of the dead man in the most conspicuous position in the house, where it is enclosed in a wooden shrine. This image consists of a mask, which is fashioned with exemplary fidelity both in its modeling and its complexion to represent the features of the dead man. On occasions when public sacrifices are offered, these masks are displayed and are decorated with great care. And when any distinguished member of the family dies, the masks are taken to the funeral, and are there worn by men who are considered to bear the closest resemblance to the original, both in height and in their general appearance and bearing. These substitutes are dressed according to the rank of the deceased: a toga with a purple border for a consul or praetor, a completely purple garment for a censor, and one embroidered with gold for a man who had celebrated a triumph or performed some similar exploit.

They all ride in chariots with the fasces, axes and other insignia carried before them, according to the dignity of the offices of state which the dead man had held in his lifetime, and when they arrive at the rostra they all seat themselves in a row upon chairs of ivory. It would be hard to imagine a more impressive scene for a young man who aspires to win fame and to practice virtue. For who could remain unmoved at the sight of the images of all these men who have won renown in their time, now gathered together as if alive and breathing? What spectacle could be more glorious than this?

Moreover, the speaker who pronounces the oration over the man who is about to be buried, when he has delivered his tribute, goes on to relate the successes and achievements of all the others whose images are displayed there, beginning with the oldest. By this constant renewal of the good report of brave men, the fame of those who have performed any noble deed is made immortal, and the renown of those who have served their country well becomes a matter of common knowledge and a heritage for posterity. But the most important consequence of the ceremony is that it inspires young men to endure the extremes of suffering for the common good in the hope of winning the glory that waits upon the brave. And what I have just said is attested by the facts. Many Romans have volunteered to engage in single combat so as to decide a whole battle, and not a few have chosen certain death, some in war to save the lives of their countrymen, others in times of peace to ensure the safety of the Republic. Besides this, there have been instances of men in office who have put their own sons to death, contrary to every law or custom, because they valued the interest of their country more dearly than their natural ties to their own flesh and blood. Many stories of this kind can be told of many men in Roman history, but one in particular will serve as an example and a proof of my contention.

The story goes that while Horatius Cocles was engaged in combat with two of the enemy at the far end of the bridge over the Tiber which gives entrance to the city on the west, he saw a large body of reinforcements approaching. Fearing that they would succeed in forcing the passage and entering the city, he turned round and shouted to those behind him to retire at once and make haste to break down the bridge. His comrades obeyed, and all the time that they were demolishing it Horatius stood his ground. He suffered many wounds, but he held back the enemy’s attack and astounded them not so much by his physical strength as by his endurance and courage. Once the bridge was cut the enemy’s advance was halted, whereupon Cocles threw himself into the river still wearing his armor and weapons. He deliberately sacrificed himself because he valued the safety of his country and the glory which would later attach itself to his name more than his present existence and the years of life that remained to him. This is a typical example, it seems to me, of the spirit of emulation and the ambition to perform deeds of gallantry which the customs of the Romans help to implant in their young men...

However, the sphere in which the Roman commonwealth seems to me to show its superiority most decisively is that of religious belief. Here we find that the very phenomenon which among other peoples is regarded as a subject for reproach, namely superstition, is actually the element which holds the Roman state together. These matters are treated with such solemnity and introduced so frequently both into public and into private life that nothing could exceed them in importance. Many people may find this astonishing, but my own view is that the Romans have adopted these practices for the sake of the common people. This approach might not have been necessary had it ever been possible to form a state composed entirely of wise men. But as the masses are always fickle, filled with lawless desires, unreasoning anger and violent passions, they can only be restrained by mysterious terrors or other dramatizations of the subject. For this reason I believe that the ancients were by no means acting foolishly or haphazardly when they introduced to the people various notions concerning the gods and the belief in the punishments of Hades, but rather that the moderns are foolish and take greater risks in rejecting them. At any rate, the result is that among the Greeks, apart from anything else, men who hold public office cannot be trusted with the safekeeping of so much as a single talent [a monetary measure], even if they have ten accountants and as many seals and twice as many witnesses, whereas among the Romans their magistrates handle large sums of money and scrupulously perform their duty because they have given their word on oath. Among other nations it is a rare phenomenon to find a man who keeps his hands off public funds and whose record is clean in this respect, while among the Romans it is quite the exception to find a man who had been detected in such conduct.
 

2. Sample Epitaphs

Cornelius Lucius Scipio Barbatus [fl. 298], son of Gnaeus, a brave man and wise whose beauty was equal to his courage, who was consul, censor, aedile among you. He captured Taurasia and Cisauna in Samnium; he subjugated all of Lucania, and took hostages.

Most at Rome considered this one man, Lucius Scipio [fl. 259], to have been the best of all nobles. The son of Barbatus, he was consul, censor, aedile among you. He captured Corsica and the city of Aleria. He dedicated a temple to the Storm Gods as a thanks-offering.

Behold, O citizens, the bust of the old man Ennius (239-269): he composed the record of your fathers’ mighty deeds.

Claudia's epitaph

 
3. Ennius (239-169 BCE), fragments from Annales
   
    (5) Homer the poet appeared at my side.

    (80-100) Then careful with great care, each desiring to rule, they give their attention to watching and reading the signs from birds...on a hill... Remus devotes himself to watching and stands apart, looking for an auspicious bird. Handsome Romulus, however, searches from the high Aventine and looks for one of the high-flying breed. Their dispute was whether to call the city Rome or Remora. Anxiety filled all the men as to which of them would be ruler. Just as when the consul gives the signal, and all men look eagerly at the barriers to see how soon he will send the chariots out from the painted stalls — so they waited, and kept silent, wondering to which of them the event would give the victory of kingship. Meanwhile the bright sun withdrew into dark of night. Then suddenly a light shot forth its rays, and at the same time from on high on the left flew a bird, the most auspicious of flying prophets, while at the same time the sun rose up golden. Three times four sacred forms of birds swooped down from the sky and alit in lucky and auspicious places. From this Romulus saw that the chair and throne of kingship were given to him as his possession, firmly established by the auspices.

    (117-20) At the same time they talked thus among themselves: “O Romulus, godly Romulus, what a guardian of your country the gods begat in you! O father, O begetter, O blood sprung from the gods!”

    (200-02) “O gods, hear this my prayer a little: just as I breathe forth my last from my body for the sake of the Roman people, with foresight and awareness, in arms and battle...”

    (360-62) One man by his delay restored the state; he would not put what people say above our safety. Thus to this day the warrior’s glory shines, and hereafter more greatly.

    (409-16) Javelins showered in on the tribune from all sides like rain, and pierced his shield; the embossment jangled with spears, and they clanged from his helmet as well. But though they strained from every side, not one of them could tear his body with iron. Each time he shakes and breaks the wave of lances: sweat floods his body: he labors hard: there is not enough air to breathe...

    (-------) “I ask for no gold, so give me no ransom. ...we decide the issue of life or death with iron, not gold. Let us determine through courage whether Fortune wants you or me to prevail... Accept this as I say it: I am resolved to spare the liberty of those whose valor Fortune has spared in war. I return them [sc. prisoners of war]—take them!—and the great gods concur in what I do.”

    (467-70) The Roman state stands firm on its ancient ways and its men.